There are a number of options here, but generally they are always in the form of Author, Title (Publication Information), Page(s). Thus,
| 1 Ron Ziel & George Foster, Steel Rails to the Sunrise: The Long Island Rail Road (New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1965), p. 25. |
The citation in the text would appear as follows:
| The Manorville branch was abandoned in 1939.1 |
Subsequent references to this work would appear as the following:
| 2 Ziel, et. al., p. 26. |
As a bibliography entry, this would appear as follows:
| Ziel, Ron, & George Foster. Steel Rails to the Sunrise: The Long Island Rail Road. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce, 1965. |
Again, there are a number of acceptable options, with the most common in academic usage being the following:
| 1965 | Ziel, Ron & George Foster. Steel Rails to the Sunrise: The Long Island Rail Road. New York: Duell, Sloan and Pearce. |
When the latter format of the bibliographic entry is used, footnotes per se are not used in the text; rather, the citation in the text references the author's name and date of publication (if there is only one title by the author the date may be omitted):
However, when using this form of citation, footnotes may still be used to include information not necessarilly appropriate to the text of the docuement, such as addtional supporting information.
Online references are essentially similar, with the following format specified by the U.S. Library of Congress (see "How to Cite Electronic Sources"):
This reference includes the protocol (HTTP), the URI (http://www...), the date of publication, and the date the site was last visited.
Affect: to influence(v) (an uncommon usage, from psychology, is an emotion [n]); an unrelated word, also spelled "affect," means to put on a false display.
Effect: a consequence of an action (n) or to produce some consequence (v).
Among: used with respect to a group of more than two items (e.g., among A, B, and C).
Between: used with respect to a group of two items (i.e., "between A and B").
Farther: a greater distance (a synonym to "longer")
Further: in addition to (a synonym to "also")
Lay: a transitive verb meaning to put or place (its principal parts are lay, laid): "I lay my wallet on the dresser when I get home."
Lie: an intransitive verb meaning to recline or rest on a surface (its principal parts are lie, lay, lain): "I lie on the sofa to watch The Simpsons on television."
That: used with a restrictive clause (i.e., specifically identifies the element discussed; not set apart with commas).
Which: used with a non-restrictive clause (i.e., adds supplemental information about an element that is already identified; set apart with commas).
Who: the subject of an action.
Whom: the object of an action.
Practicable: "feasible" or "usable for a specified purpose" (Note: practicable cannot be applied to persons).
Practical: has at least eight meanings: e.g., "acquired through practice rather than theory"
(a flight test is a practical examanation), "level-headed" (a practical person),
"virtual" (a practical fiasco); more commonly, "capable of being put into effect" and "useful"
Practical and practicable are not synonyms: a common example of their subtle distinction is "If you have a practical knowledge of French, you can order coffee in a Parisian cafe, though it may not be practicable to try to learn the language of every country you visit."
Tortuous: "winding, crooked" or "tricky to handle." Torturous: "causing torture" or "painful in a cruel way." Tortured: "receiving torture" or "pained."
He had to take a tortuous route through the Alps.
He survived the torturous existence of the concentration camp.
The beggar gave a tortured look to the passers-by.
The formal and the actual usages of will and shall are now hopelessly muddled. Formally, shall is used for the 1st person singular & plural while will is used for the 2nd & 3rd persons singular & plural, except to express determination or a command, where the usages are essentially reversed:
"I shall go to the store after work today."
"I will finish this crossword puzzle!"
-- and --
"He will need to go to the store after work today."
"You shall finish this assignment before you go home!"
Only the British still follow these rules, and they sound awkward or even pretentious in American usage.
Its: a rare possessive that does not use the apostrophe.
It's: the contraction of "it is," but never in contemporary usage to show possession.
Lose: to not have anymore.
Loose: unrestrained.
Hangar: a place for aircraft.
Hanger: a place for clothing
Supposed to: Do not omit the "d" -- "suppose to" is incorrect.
Used to: Same as above: "use to" is incorrect.
Toward: There is no "s" at the end of the word -- "towards" is incorrect.
Anyway: Same as above: "anyways" is incorrect.
Across: There is no "t" at the end of the word -- "acrost" is incorrect.
If I was in charge . . . Wrong! It is "If I were in charge . . ." If the sentence begins with "if" you are talking about a condition that is contrary to known fact. It may be a fact in the future, or it may be a fact but is just not know to be one; nevertheless, it is not now known to be a fact (or is known to be contrary to fact). This requres the subjunctive tense of the verb.
I couldn't care less: Be sure to make it negative, not "I could care less," which states that you do care.
N.B.,
(1) "I could care less," as an idiom in spoken English, is probably well enough understood (to mean "I don't care") that the intent is clear;
however, such an idiom should never be used in formal writing;
(2) "Like I could care less" (as a statement or question) actually does imply that the speaker really cannot care less,
so in that case the usage is syntactically correct (but it is still an awkward idiom).
Acronyms should be spelled out and then put in parentheses, e.g., New York State Office for the Aging (NYSOFA), the first time it is used in a document. Use terminology and acronyms consistently throughout documents: (1) if used again in the correspondence, the acronym should be used alone; (2) capitalize acronyms (e.g., NYSOFA, FAA, SUNY, etc.) unless the specific custom is not to capitalize some or all letters (e.g., AFofL).
Numbers one through ten should be written in words. Any number above ten may be written in figures (Two Empire State Plaza, 13 Elm Street).
For major works (books, newspapers), Italicize the main title or subtitle (underline if done on a typewriter, handwritten, or if italics is otherwise not available):
I think you'll find some good travel tips in Speedway to Sunshine: The Story of the Florida East Coast Railway.
-- or --
I think you'll find some good travel tips in Speedway to Sunshine: The Story of the Florida East Coast Railway.
Quotation Marks should be used around titles that represent a minor work or only a part of a complete published work, for example conference themes, feature columns in newspapers and magazines, or parts within a book or journal:
The article is entitled "Working with Data" in The American Journal of Sociology.
Note that with respect to all of the above, underline should not be used on web pages as it will be confused as an indication of a link.
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Steve Sconfienza, Ph.D.
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